@article{Toledo-Hernández12023,

title = {Uncovering the link between environmental factors and coral immunity: A study of fluorescent protein expression and phenoloxidase activity in Acropora cervicornis},

author = {Toledo-Hernández C and Ruiz-Diaz CP and Ramírez-Lugo JS and Torres-Diaz M and Santiago-Pagán L and Bruno-Chardón A and Diaz-Vázquez LM},

editor = {Virginia M. Weis and Nicholas MacKnight and Bradford Dimos

},

url = {https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2023.1133486/full},

doi = {https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2023.1133486},

year  = {2023},

date = {2023-03-02},

urldate = {2023-03-02},

journal = {Frontiers in Marine Science},

volume = {10},

pages = {1-11},

abstract = {Worsening environmental conditions due to climate change have profoundly affected the health of coral reefs worldwide. Thus, understanding how corals respond to fluctuating and/or extreme levels of temperature and solar irradiation will guide future protection and restoration efforts of this valuable ecosystem. Herein, we present a study of the immune responses of the endangered coral Acropora cervicornis to seasonal fluctuations in water temperature (WT), light intensity (LI), and water depth. Immune responses were observed by measuring the concentration of green and cyan fluorescent proteins (GFP and CyFP) and the activity of phenoloxidase (PO), an enzyme involved in the biosynthesis of the photoprotective protein melanin. To study these responses, visually healthy A. cervicornis fragments were placed at 8, and 12 m depth, and GFP, CyPF, and PO activity were measured at three-month intervals over a 12-month period. Seawater temperature and light intensity were also measured at each depth during this period. A general linear mixed model was used to determine the effects of seasonal variations of WT, LI, and water depth on the immune proteins. GFP, CyFP, and PO activity varied significantly across time – all higher in late summer/early fall and lower in late winter/early spring. Likewise, WT and LI significantly affected GFP, CyFP, and PO activity. On the other hand, water depth only had a significant effect on fluorescent protein concentrations but not PO activity. Our study demonstrates that corals can modulate these key immune-related proteins throughout natural seasonal fluctuations. That is, increasing in months of higher thermal and light conditions while decreasing in months with mild thermal and light conditions. The phenotypic plasticity of A. cervicornis in adapting to a changing environment underscores the importance that in future studies time of the year should be a meaningful consideration when evaluating the responses of A. cervicornis to the environment.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Bayraktarov2022,

title = {Joining global efforts to halt coral reef decline: a call for more diversity, equity, and inclusion at international scientific meetings  },

author = { Elisa Bayraktarov, Edwin A. Hernández Delgado, Valeria Pizarro , Phanor H Montoya-Maya , Claudia Patricia Ruiz-Diaz , Stuart R Phinn , Chris Roelfsema , Sarah Frías-Torres},

url = {http://coralreefs.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/Reef_Encounter_51_lores.pdf},

issn = { 0225-27987},

year  = {2022},

date = {2022-06-01},

journal = {Reef Ecounter},

volume = {37},

issue = {1},

pages = {28-35},

abstract = {Finding solutions to the global coral reef crisis will require active adaptive management, where scientific results on successes vs failures at local field sites are used to inform conservation interventions and natural resource management. Any scientific progress and solution-focused innovation starts with the exchange of knowledge. Scientific conferences can quickly disseminate major research findings and encourage public debates to push the boundaries of science.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Ruiz-Diaz2022b,

title = {The Effects of Depth-Related Environmental Factors on Traits in Acropora cervicornis Raised in Nurseries.},

author = {Ruiz-Diaz, C. P. and Toledo-Hernández, C. and Sánchez-González, J. L. and Betancourt, B.},

doi = {https://doi.org/10.3390/w14020212},

year  = {2022},

date = {2022-01-12},

urldate = {2022-01-12},

journal = {Water},

volume = { 14},

issue = {2},

pages = {212},

abstract = {Populations of Acropora cervicornis, one of the most important reef-building corals in the Caribbean, have been declining due to human activities and global climate change. This has prompted the development of strategies such as coral farms, aimed at improving the long-term viability of this coral across its geographical range. This study focuses on comprehending how seawater temperature (ST), and light levels (LL) affect the survival and growth of A. cervicornis fragments collected from three reefs in Culebra, Puerto Rico. These individuals were fragmented into three pieces of the similar sizes and placed in farms at 5, 8, and 12 m depth. The fragments, ST and LL were monitored for 11 months. Results show that fragments from shallow farms exhibit significantly higher mortalities when compared to the other two depths. Yet, growth at shallow farms was nearly 24% higher than at the other two depths. Corals grew fastest during winter, when temperature and LL were lowest, regardless of the water depth. Fragment mortality and growth origin were also influenced by reef origin. We conclude that under the current conditions, shallow farms may offer a slight advantage over deep ones provided the higher growth rate at shallow farms and the high fragment survival at all depths.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Vardi2021,

title = {Six priorities to advance the science and practice of coral reef restoration worldwide},

author = {Tali Vardi, Whitney C. Hoot, Jessica Levy, Elizabeth Shaver, R. Scott Winters, Anastazia T. Banaszak, Iliana B. Baums, Valérie F. Chamberland, Nathan Cook, David Gulko, Margaux Y. Hein, Les Kaufman, Michelle Loewe, Petra Lundgren, Caitlin Lustic, Petra MacGowan, Mikhail V. Matz, Miles McGonigle, Ian McLeod, Jennifer Moore, Tom Moore, Sandrine Pivard, F. Joseph Pollock, Baruch Rinkevich, David J. Suggett, Samuel Suleiman, T. Shay Viehman, Tatiana Villalobos, Virginia M. Weis, Chelsea Wolke, Phanor H. Montoya-Maya},

url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/rec.13498},

doi = {https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.13498},

issn = {1061-2971},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-11-29},

journal = {Restoration Ecology},

volume = {29},

issue = {8},

pages = {1-7},

abstract = {Coral reef restoration is a rapidly growing movement galvanized by the accelerating degradation of the world's tropical coral reefs. The need for concerted and collaborative action focused on the recovery of coral reef ecosystems coalesced in the creation of the Coral Restoration Consortium (CRC) in 2017. In March 2020, the CRC leadership team met for a biennial review of international coral reef restoration efforts and a discussion of perceived knowledge and implementation bottlenecks that may impair scalability and efficacy. Herein we present six priorities wherein the CRC will foster scientific advancement and collaboration to: (1) increase restoration efficiency, focusing on scale and cost-effectiveness of deployment; (2) scale up larval-based coral restoration efforts, emphasizing recruit health, growth, and survival; (3) ensure restoration of threatened coral species proceeds within a population-genetics management context; (4) support a holistic approach to coral reef ecosystem restoration; (5) develop and promote the use of standardized terms and metrics for coral reef restoration; and (6) support coral reef restoration practitioners working in diverse geographic locations. These priorities are not exhaustive nor do we imply that accomplishing these tasks alone will be sufficient to restore coral reefs globally; rather these are topics where we feel the CRC community of practice can make timely and significant contributions to facilitate the growth of coral reef restoration as a practical conservation strategy. The goal for these collective actions is to provide tangible, local-scale advancements in reef condition that offset declines resulting from local and global stressors including climate change.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Ramírez-Lugo2021,

title = {CREARE: A Course-Based Undergraduate Research Experience To Study the Responses of the Endangered Coral Acropora cervicornis to a Changing Environment.},

author = {Toledo-Hernández J. S. Ramírez-Lugo},

url = {https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8060141/},

doi = {https://dx.doi.org/10.1128%2Fjmbe.v22i1.2253C},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-03-31},

journal = {Journal of Microbiology & Biology Education},

volume = {22},

number = {1},

pages = {1-68},

abstract = {There is mounting evidence to support that students who participate in scientific research experiences are more likely to continue on to advanced degrees and careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). To introduce more students to the benefits of research, we have drawn on an ongoing project aimed at understanding how the Caribbean staghorn coral Acropora cervicornis responds to environmental fluctuations to develop a semester-long course-based undergraduate research experience (CURE), entitled CREARE (Coral Response to Environment Authentic Research Experience). The main mode of instruction in CREARE is through topic modules, and course evaluation is achieved through writing assignments. Students in CREARE perform experiments in the laboratory to measure the abundance of photo-protective proteins in coral tissue from samples collected at different depths and at different times of the year and analyze environmental data using the R programming language. CREARE participants have contributed to the progress of the research project by generating novel data and making improvements to experimental protocols. Furthermore, pre- and post-course assessment of content knowledge revealed that students perform significantly better on a written exam after participating in CREARE, while also displaying appreciable shifts in attitudes towards science in student perception surveys. In addition, through qualitative analysis of focus group interviews, we gathered evidence to suggest that mediating variables that predict students’ persistence in science are bolstered through our application of the CURE modality. Overall, CREARE can serve as a model for developing more research-based courses that successfully engage students in scientific research.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Cortés-Useche2021,

title = {Conservation actions and ecological context: optimizing coral reef local management in the Dominican Republic.},

author = {Cortés-Useche, C. and Hernández-Delgado, E. A. and Calle-Triviño, J. and Blasco, R. S. and Galván, V. and Arias-González, J. E. (2021).},

doi = {https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.10925},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-03-09},

urldate = {2021-03-09},

journal = {Peerj},

volume = {9},

pages = {10925},

abstract = {Over the past few decades, coral reef ecosystems have been lost at accelerated rates as a result of global climate change and local stressors. Local management schemes can help improve the condition of coral reefs by enhancing their ecosystem recovery capacity. Caribbean conservation efforts include mitigation of local anthropogenic stressors, and integrating social participation. Here, we analyzed the case of the Bayahibe reefs in the Southeastern (SE) Dominican Republic to identify conservation actions and illustrate a conceptual example of local seascape management. We assessed reef health indicators from 2011 to 2016. Overall, our results show increases in total fish biomass, in both commercial and herbivorous fishes. Mean live coral cover was 31% and fleshy macroalgae was 23% after multiple disturbances such as Hurricanes Sandy and Isaac (2012), Mathew (2016) and heat stress presented in the study area in 2015. We also described actions taken by stakeholders and government institutions, including the implementation of a policy declaring an area of 869,000 ha as a marine protected area (MPA), enhanced water quality treatment, local restrictions to vessel traffic, enforcement of fishing regulations, and the removal of invasive lionfish (Pterois spp.). In addition, a restoration program for the threatened staghorn coral (Acropora cervicornis) was established in 2011, and currently has eight coral nurseries and six outplanting sites. Considering the biology and ecology of these reefs, we observed good results for these indicators (live coral cover, fish biomass, and water quality) in contrast with severely degraded Caribbean reefs, suggesting that optimizing local management may be a useful example for improving reef condition. Our results provide an overview of trends in reef condition in the SE Dominican Republic and could support current strategies to better protect reefs in the region. Given that Caribbean coral reefs face extreme challenges from global climate change, management measures may improve reef conditions across the region but stronger policy processes and increased scientific knowledge are needed for the successful management of coral reefs.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Gómez-Andújar2020,

title = {Spatial benthic community analysis of shallow coral reefs to support coastal management in Culebra Island, Puerto Rico.},

author = {E. A. Hernández-Delgado. NX Gómez-Andújar},

editor = {Gregory Verutes},

doi = {https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.10080},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-10-14},

journal = {PeerJ e10080.},

abstract = {Caribbean coral reefs provide essential ecosystem services to society, including fisheries, tourism and shoreline protection from coastal erosion. However, these reefs are also exhibiting major declining trends, leading to the evolution of novel ecosystems dominated by non-reef building taxa, with potentially altered ecological functions. In the search for effective management strategies, this study characterized coral reefs in front of a touristic beach which provides economic benefits to the surrounding coastal communities yet faces increasing anthropogenic pressures and conservation challenges. Haphazard photo-transects were used to address spatial variation patterns in the reef’s benthic community structure in eight locations. Statistically significant differences were found with increasing distance from the shoreline, reef rugosity, Diadema antillarum density, among reef locations, and as a function of recreational use. Nearshore reefs reflected higher percent macroalgal cover, likely due to increased exposure from both recreational activities and nearby unsustainable land-use practices. However, nearshore reefs still support a high abundance of the endangered reef-building coral Orbicella annularis, highlighting the need to conserve these natural shoreline protectors. There is an opportunity for local stakeholders and regulatory institutions to collaboratively implement sea-urchin propagation, restoration of endangered Acroporid coral populations, and zoning of recreational densities across reefs. Our results illustrate vulnerable reef hotspots where these management interventions are needed and recommend guidelines to address them.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Zimmerman2020b,

title = {Resistance, resilience, and vulnerability of social‐ecological systems to hurricanes in Puerto Rico.},

author = {Zimmerman, J. K. and Willig, M. R. and Hernandez‐Delgado, E. A.},

doi = {https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.3159},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-10-09},

urldate = {2020-10-09},

journal = {Ecosphere},

volume = {11},

issue = {10},

pages = {e03159},

abstract = {Subject to hurricane disturbance for millennia, natural ecosystems of Puerto Rico exhibit clear patterns of resistance (e.g., many tree species have little immediate storm-related mortality) and resilience (e.g., leaf litterfall and stream chemistry returned to pre-hurricane levels in as little as five years). Contemporaneous studies of near-shore areas also suggested no long-term impacts of hurricanes; however, anthropogenic effects (coral bleaching, sedimentation) dominate the long-term condition of marine systems in Puerto Rico, many of which have slowly evolved into novel ecosystems. A key characteristic of novel marine ecosystems is their long-term loss of benefits and resilience, coupled to declining biodiversity and loss of structural or functional redundancy, signaling increased vulnerability to subsequent hurricanes. Human systems are also strongly affected by cyclonic storms, as evidenced by the recent impacts of Hurricanes Irma and Maria in the Caribbean. The lack of short-term recovery from disturbance by coral reef ecosystems, coupled with an increasing recurrence of anthropogenic impacts, increasing hurricane frequency or severity, and sea-level rise, may have irreversible long-term socioeconomic consequences for coastal social–ecological systems and for community livelihoods. A comprehensive social–ecological understanding of hurricane effects in Puerto Rico is lacking in part because hurricane effects on human populations are not comprehensively followed. Although some studies suggest a path forward, finding effective methods to link measurements of storm intensity to the diverse components of tropical social–ecological systems remains a challenge.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Precht2020b,

title = {The timing and causality of ecological shifts on Caribbean coral reefs.},

author = {R. B. Aronson W.F. Precht and I. M. Côté 2020.},

doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.amb.2020.08.008},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-10-08},

journal = {Advances in Marine Biology},

volume = {87},

number = {1},

abstract = {Caribbean reefs have experienced unprecedented changes in the past four decades. Of great concern is the perceived widespread shift from coral to macroalgal dominance and the question of whether it represents a new, stable equilibrium for coral-reef communities. The primary causes of the shift—grazing pressure (top-down), nutrient loading (bottom-up) or direct coral mortality (side-in)—still remain somewhat controversial in the coral-reef literature. We have attempted to tease out the relative importance of each of these causes. Four insights emerge from our analysis of an early regional dataset of information on the benthic composition of Caribbean reefs spanning the years 1977–2001. First, although three-quarters of reef sites have experienced coral declines concomitant with macroalgal increases, fewer than 10% of the more than 200 sites studied were dominated by macroalgae in 2001, by even the most conservative definition of dominance. Using relative dominance as the threshold, a total of 49 coral-to-macroalgae shifts were detected. This total represents ~ 35% of all sites that were dominated by coral at the start of their monitoring periods. Four shifts (8.2%) occurred because of coral loss with no change in macroalgal cover, 15 (30.6%) occurred because of macroalgal gain without coral loss, and 30 (61.2%) occurred owing to concomitant coral decline and macroalgal increase. Second, the timing of shifts at the regional scale is most consistent with the side-in model of reef degradation, which invokes coral mortality as a precursor to macroalgal takeover, because more shifts occurred after regional coral-mortality events than expected by chance. Third, instantaneous observations taken at the start and end of the time-series for individual sites showed these reefs existed along a continuum of coral and macroalgal cover. The continuous, broadly negative relationship between coral and macroalgal cover suggests that in some cases coral-to-macroalgae phase shifts may be reversed by removing sources of perturbation or restoring critical components such as the herbivorous sea urchin Diadema antillarum to the system. The five instances in which macroalgal dominance was reversed corroborate the conclusion that macroalgal dominance is not a stable, alternative community state as has been commonly assumed. Fourth, the fact that the loss in regional coral cover and concomitant changes to the benthic community are related to punctuated, discrete events with known causes (i.e. coral disease and bleaching), lends credence to the hypothesis that coral reefs of the Caribbean have been under assault from climate-change-related maladies since the 1970s.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Sabat2020,

title = {Population dynamics of diseased corals: Effects of a Shut Down Reaction outbreak in Puerto Rican Acropora cervicornis},

author = {E. A. Hernández-Delgado A. E. Mercado-Molina; A.M. Sabat},

editor = {Academic Press},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-10-07},

journal = {Advance in Marine Biology},

volume = {87},

abstract = {Chronic coral reef degradation has been characterized by a significant decline in the population abundance and live tissue cover of scleractinian corals across the wider Caribbean. Acropora cervicornis is among the species whose populations have suffered an unprecedented collapse throughout the region. This species, which once dominated the shallow-water reef communities, is susceptible to a wide range of stressors, resulting in a general lack of recovery following disturbances. A. cervicornis is a critical contributor to the structure, function, and resilience of Caribbean coral reefs. Therefore, it is essential to identify the factors that influence their demographic and population performance. Diseases are one of the factors that are compromising the recovery of coral populations. In this chapter, we use size-based population matrix models to evaluate the population-level effect of a Shut Down Reaction Disease},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Rodríguez-Casariego2020,

title = {Genome-wide DNA methylation analysis reveals a conserved epigenetic response to seasonal environmental variation in the staghorn coral Acropora cervicornis.},

author = {Mercado-Molina J. A. Rodríguez-Casariego},

editor = {Institute of Deep-Sea Science Yong Wang and University of Texas at Austin China Mikhail V. Matz Engineering (CAS) and Germany Marine Research (AWI)},

doi = {https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2020.560424},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-09-30},

journal = {Frontiers in Marine Science},

abstract = {Epigenetic modifications such as DNA methylation have been shown to participate in plastic responses to environmental change in a wide range of organisms, including scleractinian corals. Unfortunately, the current understanding of the links between environmental signals, epigenetic modifications, and the subsequent consequences for acclimatory phenotypic changes remain obscure. Such a knowledge gap extends also to the dynamic nature of epigenetic changes, hampering our ability to ascertain the magnitude and extent of these responses under natural conditions. The present work aims to shed light on these subjects by examining temporal changes in genome-wide patterns of DNA methylation in the staghorn coral Acropora cervicornis in the island of Culebra, PR. During a 17-month period, a total of 162 polymorphic loci were identified using Methylation-Sensitive Amplified Polymorphism (MSAP). Among them, 83 of these restriction fragments displayed changes in DNA methylation that were significantly correlated to seasonal variation as determined mostly by changes in sea water temperature. Remarkably, the observed time-dependent variation in DNA methylation patterns is consistent across coral genets, coral source sites and site-specific conditions studied. Overall, these results are consistent with a conserved epigenetic response to seasonal environmental variation. These findings highlight the importance of including seasonal variability into experimental designs investigating the role of epigenetic mechanisms such as DNA methylation in responses to stress.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Bayraktarov2020,

title = {Review of coral reef restoration efforts in Latin American countries and territories},

author = {M. Angel E. Bayraktarov},

editor = {PLOS One},

doi = {https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0228477},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-08-05},

journal = {Plos ONE},

volume = {15},

number = {8},

abstract = {Coral reefs worldwide are degrading due to climate change, overfishing, pollution, coastal development, coral bleaching, and diseases. In areas where the natural recovery of an ecosystem is negligible or protection through management interventions insufficient, active restoration becomes critical. The Reef Futures symposium in 2018 brought together over 400 reef restoration experts, businesses, and civil organizations, and galvanized them to save coral reefs through restoration or identify alternative solutions. The symposium highlighted that solutions and discoveries from long-term and ongoing coral reef restoration projects in Spanish-speaking countries in the Caribbean and Eastern Tropical Pacific were not well known internationally. Therefore, a meeting of scientists and practitioners working in these locations was held to compile the data on the extent of coral reef restoration efforts, advances and challenges. Here, we present unpublished data from 12 coral reef restoration case studies from five Latin American countries, describe their motivations and techniques used, and provide estimates on total annual project cost per unit area of reef intervened, spatial extent as well as project duration. We found that most projects used direct transplantation, the coral gardening method, micro-fragmentation or larval propagation, and aimed to optimize or scale-up restoration approaches (51%) or provide alternative, sustainable livelihood opportunities (15%) followed by promoting coral reef conservation stewardship and re-establishing a self-sustaining, functioning reef ecosystems (both 13%). Reasons for restoring coral reefs were mainly biotic and experimental (both 42%), followed by idealistic and pragmatic motivations (both 8%). The median annual total cost from all projects was $93,000 USD (range: $10,000 USD—$331,802 USD) (2018 dollars) and intervened a median spatial area of 1 ha (range: 0.06 ha—8.39 ha). The median project duration was 3 years; however, projects have lasted up to 17 years. Project feasibility was high with a median of 0.7 (range: 0.5–0.8). This study closes the knowledge gap between academia and practitioners and overcomes the language barrier by providing the first comprehensive compilation of data from ongoing coral reef restoration efforts in Latin America.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Hernández-Delgado2020,

title = {Hurricane Impacts and the Resilience of the Invasive Sea Vine, Halophila stipulacea: a Case Study from Puerto Rico.},

author = {C. P. Ruíz-Díaz C. Toledo-Hernández E.A. Hernández-Delgado and Coasts},

doi = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s12237-019-00673-4},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-01-08},

journal = {Estuaries and Coasts},

volume = {43},

pages = {1263–1283},

abstract = {Category five hurricanes Irma and María (September 2017) caused significant damage to shallow seagrass communities across Puerto Rico. The magnitude and spatial extent of hurricane impacts on representative seagrass habitats of Culebra Island were addressed using a combination of random photo-quadrats and before–after hurricanes GIS-based imagery analyses. There was a significant loss of shallow seagrasses across all nine surveyed locations. Most of the documented impacts were associated with sediment bedload (horizontal transport), which resulted in burial and suffocation. There was also localized physical disruption of the seagrass habitat matrix across locations exposed to stronger wave action, creating major scars and exposing below-ground structure to further disintegration by future storm events. Displaced coral rubble also caused seagrass burial. Aerial imagery analyses (2007, 2010, 2017) showed a significant decline in seagrass percent cover. Seagrass decline was positively correlated with wave exposure (p < 0.05). Seagrass cover, density, and changes in benthic community structure were documented across five of the surveyed locations during 2018, and these data were further compared to data collected in 2004 at these same sites. There was a decline in percent seagrass cover and density and a change in benthic community structure favoring habitat homogenization. A remarkable finding was the rapid recovery, expansion, and increased localized dominance of the invasive seagrass, Halophila stipulacea. This was particularly evident in areas impacted by recurrent land-based runoff pulses, anchoring, sediment resuspension due to navigation, trampling or by the accumulation of decaying Sargassum mats. Hurricanes triggered a localized shift in marine vegetation, favoring the invasion of H. stipulacea, with potentially significant consequences on ecosystem resilience and on the ability of native in seagrasses to persist and adapt to projected climate change impacts.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Weil2019,

title = {Spread of the new coral disease “SCTLD” into the Caribbean: implications for Puerto Rico.},

author = {M. González E.A. Hernández-Delgado E. Weil and T Metz-Estrella.},

url = {https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342477916_REEF_ENCOUNTER_Spread_of_the_new_coral_disease_SCTLD_into_the_Caribbean_implications_for_Puerto_Rico},

year  = {2019},

date = {2019-12-01},

journal = {Reef Encounter},

volume = {34},

pages = {38-43},

abstract = {The article presents a summary of the current situation and spread of the new coral disease Scleractinian Coral Tissue Loss Disease (SCTLD) in the Caribbean and in Puerto. Rico.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{toonDynamics2019,

title = {Caribbean Near-Shore Coral Reef Benthic Community Response to Changes on Sedimentation Dynamics and Environmental Conditions.},

author = {Noelia M. García-Rodríguez Alfredo A. Montañez-Acuña Abimarie Otaño-Cruz and Edwin A. Hernández-Delgado.},

editor = {Douglas Fenner},

doi = {https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.00551},

year  = {2019},

date = {2019-09-06},

journal = {Frontiers in Marine Science},

volume = {6},

pages = {551},

abstract = {Coral reefs are facing unprecedented global, regional and local threats that continue to degrade near-shore habitats. Water quality degradation, due to unsustainable development practices at coastal watersheds, is one of the greatest stressors across multiple spatial scales. The goal of this study was to assess near-shore coral reef benthic community spatio-temporal response to sedimentation patterns, weather, and oceanographic dynamics at Bahía Tamarindo and Punta Soldado in Culebra Island, Puerto Rico. Benthic data were collected across a distance gradient from the shore through high-resolution images at marked belt transects. Environmental data were assessed and contrasted with benthic assemblages using multivariate correlations and multiple linear regression. Coral colony abundance and coral recruit assemblages showed significant variation among seasons, sites and distance zones (PERMANOVA, p < 0.01). Species diversity (H’n) increased at both study sites with distance from shore, and the most conspicuous coral recruit species were stress-tolerant Porites astreoides, P. porites, and Siderastrea radians. Difference in coral abundance and coral recruits per site had a strong significant negative relationship with sediment characteristics and depth (p < 0.05). Near-shore coral reef benthic community structure was significantly different between sites and distance zones from shore, with depth having an important role in shaping reef zonation. Changes in benthic community structure were associated with local sediment distribution patterns emerging from human alteration of coastal watersheds and natural events that cause terrigenous sediment deposition and sand resuspension across the reef. Coral cover was significantly lower at zones more exposed to recurrent sedimentation stress (p < 0.01). It was also correlated with sediment texture (p = 0.006) and terrigenous sediment deposition (p = 0.016). Scleractinian coral cover had an inverse relationship with gorgonian and macroalgae cover. In a short-term period, a pattern of increased dominance of encrusting calcareous algae Ramicrusta textilis and invasive sponge Dictyonella funicularis were documented. Changing land use and increased frequency of extreme weather events, as a consequence of global patterns of climate change, may play an important role shaping near-shore coral reefs benthic communities and could threaten the resilience of coastal regions. Therefore, collaborative and trans-disciplinary ecosystem-based management efforts are urgently needed to effectively reduce land-based stressors and foster near-shore coral reef recovery.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{P.Ruiz-Diaz2019,

title = {A mathematical model of the interactions between Acropora cervicornis and its environment},

author = {Juan S. Ramírez-Lugo Carlos Toledo-Hernández Aniel Nieves-Gonzáleza; Claudia P.Ruiz-Diaz},

doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2019.04.004},

year  = {2019},

date = {2019-08-24},

journal = {Ecological Modelling},

volume = {406},

pages = {7-22},

abstract = {Environmental factors associated with climate change such as increasing sea surface temperature (SST) and solar radiation (SR) have negatively impacted corals throughout their geographic ranges. One such coral, which has been seriously impacted by these stressors, is the staghorn coral Acropora cervicornis. To reduce the effects of such stressors, this coral utilizes fluorescent proteins (FPs) and melanin (M). These constitutive immune components quench reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced during thermal stress and absorb or reflect potentially damaging light. The synthesis of these components are, nonetheless, energetically costly. Hence, production of these protective compounds may be traded-off against other vital functions such as growth. In this study we develop a mathematical model, viz., a system of ordinary differential equations that simulates the growth of A. cervicornis branches under different regimes and combinations of SST and SR. The model assumes that polyps are the functional unit of the coral and that the concentration of FPs and M are inversely proportional to SST and SR intensity. To develop the model we use empirical (birth and mortality rate of polyps and the maximum number of polyps per unit area) and theoretical parameters (concentration of FPs, M produced, and trade-offs with growth). The model simulates how changes in FPs and M due to environmental changes affect the growth capacity of A. cervicornis. The model as well as its stability analysis show that polyp growth is affected by SR and SST. Hence, the model will help in understanding how corals will respond to future changes in climate.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Precht2020,

title = {NON-RANDOM TIMING OF ECOLOGICAL SHIFTS ON CARIBBEAN CORAL REEFS SUGGESTS REGIONAL CAUSES OF CHANGE},

author = {T. A. Gardner R.B. Aronson W.F. Precht},

editor = {Marine and Coastal Programs},

doi = {https://doi.org/10.1101/672121},

year  = {2019},

date = {2019-06-24},

journal = {Advance in Marine Biology},

volume = {87},

abstract = {Caribbean reefs have experienced unprecedented changes in the past four decades. Of great concern is the perceived widespread shift from coral to macroalgal dominance and the question of whether it represents a new, stable equilibrium for coral-reef communities. The primary causes of the shift -- grazing pressure (top-down), nutrient loading (bottom-up) or direct coral mortality (side-in) -- still remain somewhat controversial in the coral reef literature. We have attempted to tease out the relative importance of each of these causes. Four insights emerge from our analysis of an early regional dataset of information on the benthic composition of Caribbean reefs spanning the years 1977–2001. First, although three-quarters of reef sites have experienced coral declines concomitant with macroalgal increases, fewer than 10% of the more than 200 sites studied were dominated by macroalgae in 2001, by even the most conservative definition of dominance. Using relative dominance as the threshold, a total of 49 coral-to-macroalgae shifts were detected. This total represents ∼35% of all sites that were dominated by coral at the start of their monitoring periods. Four shifts (8.2%) occurred because of coral loss with no change in macroalgal cover, 15 (30.6%) occurred because of macroalgal gain without coral loss, and 30 (61.2%) occurred owing to concomitant coral decline and macroalgal increase. Second, the timing of shifts at the regional scale is most consistent with the side-in model of reef degradation, which invokes coral mortality as a precursor to macroalgal takeover, because more shifts occurred after regional coral-mortality events than expected by chance. Third, instantaneous observations taken at the start and end of the time-series for individual sites showed these reefs existed along a continuum of coral and macroalgal cover. The continuous, broadly negative relationship between coral and macroalgal cover suggests that in some cases coral-to-macroalgae phase shifts may be reversed by removing sources of perturbation or restoring critical components such as the herbivorous sea urchin Diadema antillarum to the system. The five instances in which macroalgal dominance was reversed corroborate the conclusion that macroalgal dominance is not a stable, alternative community state as has been commonly assumed. Fourth, the fact that the loss in regional coral cover and concomitant changes to the benthic community are related to punctuated, discrete events with known causes (i.e. coral disease and bleaching), lends credence to the hypothesis that coral reefs of the Caribbean have been under assault from climate-change-related maladies since the 1970s.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Norat-Ramíreza2019,

title = {A septic waste index model to measure the impact of septic tanks on coastal water quality and coral reef communities in Rincon, Puerto Rico},

author = {E. A. Hernández-Delgadob P. Méndez-Lázaro J. Norat-Ramíreza},

editor = {E. A. Hernández-Delgado P.Méndez-Lázaroa J.Norat-Ramírez},

doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2018.12.016},

year  = {2019},

date = {2019-03-01},

journal = {Ocean & Coastal Management},

volume = {169},

pages = {201-213},

abstract = {The impact of fecal contamination of coastal waters and coral reefs is a major cause of concern in marine reserves in Puerto Rico. The measurement of the association between septic tank frequency in watersheds of creeks draining into these reserves and coastal water quality and coral reef condition is of importance in configuring pollution control policy. Fecal coliforms and enterococci assays were used to measure the density of fecal contaminants across the Tres Palmas Marine Reserve (TPMR) in Rincon, Puerto Rico. Inshore waters are intermittent creeks, receiving fecal pollution only from faulty septic tanks. Fecal indicators measurements showed higher densities near the southernmost creek mouth emptying into TPMR, a finding consistent with a larger amount of dwellings with septic tanks within this watershed (Vista Azul creek). A Septic Weight Index was constructed to analyze sewage impact from all watersheds draining into the marine reserve. Linear Regression analyses showed a significant association between these non-point source fecal pollution sources and both coastal water quality and impact on some parameters measuring the condition of Acropora palmata coral reef colonies.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Toledo-Hernández2018,

title = {Devastation of 15-year old Community-based Coral Farming and Reef-restoration Sites in Puerto Rico by Major Hurricanes Irma and María},

author = {Edwin A. Hernández-Delgado Claudia P. Ruiz-Diaz Carlos Toledo-Hernández and Samuel E. Suleimán-Ramos},

year  = {2018},

date = {2018-12-12},

journal = {Caribbean Naturalist},

number = {53},

pages = {1-6},

abstract = {Category-5 hurricanes Irma and María impacted the northeastern Caribbean in September 2017 with waves in excess of 10 m. Herein we provide the frst assessment of hurricane damage to community-based coral farming and reef restoration at several locations from Culebra Island, Puerto Rico. Hurricanes destroyed 75 coral farms, killing 11,074 Acropora cervicornis (Staghorn Coral) fragments. Likewise, over 9000 recently out-planted colonies as well as most of the coral species adjacent to the outplants perished when they were buried by sand and rubble or were dislodged as a result of hurricane-generated waves. Liagora spp. (marine red algae) and other red algae rapidly colonized coral rubble and openreef substrates, threatening surviving corals of multiple species at least for several weeks after hurricane impacts.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Mercado-Molina2018,

title = {Growth facilitation by the octocoral Gorgonia ventalina explains spatial difference in the population size structure of the common demosponge Ircinia felix},

author = {Jaime Fonseca-Miranda Fabiola Rivera-Irizarry Alex E. Mercado-Molina},

editor = {Paco Cárdenas},

url = {https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17451000.2017.1367098},

doi = {https://doi.org/10.1080/17451000.2017.1367098},

year  = {2018},

date = {2018-11-07},

journal = {Marine Biology Research},

volume = {14, 2018},

number = {1},

pages = {41 - 51},

abstract = {In this study, the demography of the common demosponge Ircinia felix was examined at Tamarindo, a coral reef located in the island municipality of Culebra, Puerto Rico. A preliminary study comparing the size structure of two subpopulations within the reef, Tamarindo Norte (TN) and Tamarindo Sur (TS), indicated that sponges at TN are significantly larger than sponges at TS. This result served as a baseline for the present comparative study in which we aimed to determine whether the spatial differences in population size structure can be explained either by a difference in rates of survival, growth, or recruitment, or a combination of these. To accomplish our goal, we followed the growth, survival and recruitment of I. felix at the two localities for one year. Growth was the only demographic parameter that differed significantly between localities. Because the most obvious distinction between the study sites was the absence of the octocoral Gorgonia ventalina at TS, we hypothesized that the faster overall growth rate of sponges at TN was related to the presence of the octocoral. To test this hypothesis, we compared growth rates between sponges associated with the octocoral and those individuals not associated. We found that sponges growing near G. ventalina grew significantly faster than non-associated sponges. This result suggests that the octocoral facilitates the growth of I. felix and therefore may account, at least in part, for the spatial differences in population size structure.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Mercado-Molina2018b,

title = {Tissue loss rather than colony size determines the demographic fate of the branching coral Acropora cervicornis.},

author = {AM Sabat. CP Ruiz-Diaz AE Mercado-Molina},

url = {https://doi.org/10.3354/meps12578},

doi = {10.3354/meps12578},

issn = {0171-8630},

year  = {2018},

date = {2018-06-11},

journal = {Marine Ecology Progress Series},

volume = {597},

pages = {147-159},

abstract = {Partial mortality is a common process affecting coral colonies. Yet, the impact of tissue loss on the demography of the threatened reef-building coral Acropora cervicornis has been poorly investigated. This limits our understanding of how this species will fare under unfavorable environmental conditions. In this study, we examined the growth and survival of colonies with varying degrees of partial mortality, indicated by tissue loss, for 2 yr at 2 reefs in Puerto Rico. We found that irrespective of colony size, rates of coral growth and survival declined significantly once the proportion of dead tissue exceeded 20% of the total colony size. Projections of state-matrix population models indicated that partial mortality could also have a negative impact at the population level. For instance, a 25% increase in the number of colonies with >20% tissue loss would reduce the time in which 75% of the population is lost by 3 to 4 yr. Our results provide a new perspective on the effect of partial mortality on the demography and population dynamics of A. cervicornis. First, 20% of tissue loss can be considered a threshold value in which colony fate and population growth are compromised. Second, colony size is not the most important determinant of a colony’s demographic performance; instead, the surface area lost to partial mortality is a better predictor of colony growth and survivorship. Taking into consideration the relationship between partial mortality and the demographic fate of A. cervicornis can aid in the development of stronger conservation and restoration programs.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Pérez-Pagán2018,

title = {Evaluation of the effectiveness of 3D-printed corals to attract coral reef fish at Tamarindo Reef, Culebra, Puerto Rico.},

author = {AE Mercado-Molina. BS Pérez-Pagán},

url = {https://www.conservationevidence.com/individual-study/6858},

issn = {1758-2067},

year  = {2018},

date = {2018-06-11},

journal = {Conservation Evidence},

volume = {15},

pages = {43-47},

abstract = {The development of artificial corals using 3D-printing technology has been proposed as an alternative to aid the recovery of fish populations in degraded reefs. However, no study has empirically evaluated the potential of such artificial corals to attract fish to reef patches. We conducted an experiment to determine whether the number of fish associated with natural and 3D-printed corals differs significantly. The 3D-printed artificial corals mimicked the morphology of staghorn coral Acropora cervicornis, whose branches serve as habitat for many fish species. There is evidence indicating that fish abundance increases with habitat complexity, but no specific evidence relating to A. cervicornis. Therefore, we also investigated whether the structural complexity of both natural and artificial corals affected their effectiveness to attract fish. We found that the number of fish associated with artificial and natural corals was not significantly different. However, irrespective of coral type, fish were more abundant in corals with the highest levels of complexity. Our findings suggest that 3D-printed corals can serve as a complementary tool to improve the ecosystem function of degraded coral reefs.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Mercado-Molina2017,

title = {Growth facilitation by the octocoral Gorgonia ventalina explains spatial difference in the population size structure of the common demosponge Ircinia felix},

author = {Jaime Fonseca-Miranda Yesenia Bruno-Laureano Alex E. Mercado-Molina Fabiola Rivera-Irizarry},

doi = {https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17451000.2017.1367098},

year  = {2017},

date = {2017-11-07},

journal = {Marine Biology Research},

pages = {1-100},

abstract = {In this study, the demography of the common demosponge Ircinia felix was examined at Tamarindo, a coral reef located in the island municipality of Culebra, Puerto Rico. A preliminary study comparing the size structure of two subpopulations within the reef, Tamarindo Norte (TN) and Tamarindo Sur (TS), indicated that sponges at TN are significantly larger than sponges at TS. This result served as a baseline for the present comparative study in which we aimed to determine whether the spatial differences in population size structure can be explained either by a difference in rates of survival, growth, or recruitment, or a combination of these. To accomplish our goal, we followed the growth, survival and recruitment of I. felix at the two localities for one year. Growth was the only demographic parameter that differed significantly between localities. Because the most obvious distinction between the study sites was the absence of the octocoral Gorgonia ventalina at TS, we hypothesized that the faster overall growth rate of sponges at TN was related to the presence of the octocoral. To test this hypothesis, we compared growth rates between sponges associated with the octocoral and those individuals not associated. We found that sponges growing near G. ventalina grew significantly faster than non-associated sponges. This result suggests that the octocoral facilitates the growth of I. felix and therefore may account, at least in part, for the spatial differences in population size structure.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Soto-Santiago2017,

title = {Comparative demography of two common scleractinian corals: Orbicella annularis and Porites astreoides},

author = {K Reyes-Maldonado A Mercado-Molina FJ Soto-Santiago},

editor = {e39063 5},

url = {https://peerj.com/articles/3906/},

doi = {10.7717/peerj.3906},

year  = {2017},

date = {2017-10-27},

journal = {PeerJ},

volume = {5},

pages = {1-18},

abstract = {Background 

Studies directed at understanding the demography and population dynamics of corals are relatively scarce. This limits our understanding of both the dynamics of coral populations and our capacity to develop management and conservation initiatives directed at conserving such ecosystems. 

 

Methods 

From 2012 to 2014, we collected data on the growth, survival, and recruitment rates of two common Caribbean coral species, the stress-tolerant Orbicella annularis and the weedy Porites astreoides. A set of size-based population matrix model was developed for two localities in Northeastern Puerto Rico and used to estimate population growth rates (λ) and determine the life cycle transition(s) that contribute the most to spatiotemporal differences in λs. The model was parameterized by following the fate of 100 colonies of each species at the two sites for two years. 

 

Results Our data indicate that spatial variability in vital rates of both species was higher than temporal variability. During the first year, populations of O. annularis exhibited λs below equilibrium at Carlos Rosario (0.817) and Palomino (0.694), followed by a considerable decline at both sites during the second year (0.700 and 0.667). Populations of P. astreoides showed higher λs than O. annularis during the first census period at Carlos Rosario (0.898) and Palomino (0.894) with a decline at one of the sites (0.681 and 0.893) during the second census period. Colony fate in both species exhibited a significant interaction with respect to location but not to time (G2 = 20.96; df = 3 for O. annularis and G2 = 9.55; df = 3 for P. astreoides). 

 

Discussion 

The similar variability of λs as well as the similar survival rates for both species during the two-year census period (2012–2014) show similar variability on demographic patterns in space and time. Our results suggest that location rather than time is important for the resiliency in coral colonies. Also, P. astreoides will show higher resistance to disturbance in the future than O. annularis.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Godoy-Vitorino2017,

title = {The microbial biosphere of the coral Acropora cervicornis in Northeastern Puerto Rico},

author = {Abigail Rivera-Seda Claudia P. Ruiz-Diaz Filipa Godoy-Vitorino and Carlos Toledo-Hernández},

editor = {Robert Toonen},

url = {https://www.sampr.org/sam/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/Godoy-Vitorino-et-al-2017.pdf},

doi = {DOI 10.7717/peerj.3717},

year  = {2017},

date = {2017-08-29},

journal = {PeerJ},

volume = {10},

number = {3717},

pages = {15},

abstract = {Background. Coral reefs are the most biodiverse ecosystems in the marine realm, and 

they not only contribute a plethora of ecosystem services to other marine organisms, 

but they also are beneficial to humankind via, for instance, their role as nurseries 

for commercially important fish species. Corals are considered holobionts (host + 

symbionts) since they are composed not only of coral polyps, but also algae, other 

microbial eukaryotes and prokaryotes. In recent years, Caribbean reef corals, including 

the once-common scleractinian coral Acropora cervicornis, have suffered unprecedented 

mortality due to climate change-related stressors. Unfortunately, our basic knowledge 

of the molecular ecophysiology of reef corals, particularly with respect to their complex 

bacterial microbiota, is currently too poor to project how climate change will affect this 

species. For instance, we do not know how light influences microbial communities of 

A. cervicornis, arguably the most endangered of all Caribbean coral species. To this end, 

we characterized the microbiota of A. cervicornis inhabiting water depths with different 

light regimes. 

Methods. Six A. cervicornis fragments from different individuals were collected at two 

different depths (three at 1.5 m and three at 11 m) from a reef 3.2 km off the northeastern 

coast of Puerto Rico. We characterized the microbial communities by sequencing the 

16S rRNA gene region V4 with the Illumina platform. 

Results. A total of 173,137 good-quality sequences were binned into 803 OTUs with a 

97% similarity. We uncovered eight bacterial phyla at both depths with a dominance 

of 725 Rickettsiales OTUs (Proteobacteria). A fewer number (38) of low dominance 

OTUs varied by depth and taxa enriched in shallow water corals included Proteobacteria 

(e.g. Rhodobacteraceae and Serratia) and Firmicutes (Streptococcus). Those enriched in 

deeper water corals featured different Proteobacterial taxa (Campylobacterales and 

Bradyrhizobium) and Firmicutes (Lactobacillus). 

Discussion. Our results confirm that the microbiota of A. cervicornis inhabiting the 

northeastern region of Puerto Rico is dominated by a Rickettsiales-like bacterium and 

that there are significant changes in less dominant taxa at different water depths. These 

changes in less dominant taxa may potentially impact the coral’s physiology, particularly 

with respect to its ability to respond to future increases in temperature and CO2.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Toledo-Hernández2017,

title = {Comparison of chemical compounds associated with sclerites from healthy and diseased sea fan corals (Gorgonia ventalina)},

author = {Liz M. Díaz-Vázquez Claudia P. Ruiz-Diaz Carlos Toledo-Hernández and Loretta M. Roberson5},

editor = {Joseph Pawlik},

url = {https://www.sampr.org/sam/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/Toledo-Hernandez-et-al-2017.pdf},

doi = {DOI 10.7717/peerj.3677},

year  = {2017},

date = {2017-08-25},

journal = {PeerJ},

volume = {10},

number = {3677},

pages = {9},

abstract = {Background. The roles of gorgonian sclerites as structural components and predator 

deterrents have been widely studied. Yet their role as barriers against microbes has only 

recently been investigated, and even less is known about the diversity and roles of the 

chemical compounds associated with sclerites. 

Methods. Here, we examine the semi-volatile organic compound fraction (SVOCs) 

associated with sclerites from healthy and diseased Gorgonia ventalina sea fan corals to 

understand their possible role as a stress response or in defense of infection. We also 

measured the oxidative potential of compounds from diseased and healthy G. ventalina 

colonies. 

Results. The results showed that sclerites harbor a great diversity of SVOCs. Overall, 

70 compounds were identified, the majority of which are novel with unknown 

biological roles. The majority of SVOCs identified exhibit multiple immune-related 

roles including antimicrobial and radical scavenging functions. The free radical activity 

assays further confirmed the anti-oxidative potential of some these compounds. The 

anti-oxidative activity was, nonetheless, similar across sclerites regardless of the health 

condition of the colony, although sclerites from diseased sea fans display slightly higher 

anti-oxidative activity than the healthy ones. 

Discussion. Sclerites harbor great SVOCs diversity, the majority of which are novel 

to sea fans or any other corals. Yet the scientific literature consulted showed that 

the roles of compounds found in sclerites vary from antioxidant to antimicrobial 

compounds. However, this study fell short in determine the origin of the SVOCs 

identified, undermining our capacity to determine the biological roles of the SVOCs 

on sclerites and sea fans.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Otaño-Cruz2017,

title = {Effects of Changing Weather, Oceanographic Conditions, and Land Uses on Spatio-Temporal Variation of Sedimentation Dynamics along Near-Shore Coral Reefs},

author = {Valeria Torres-López Alfredo A. Montañez-Acuña Abimarie Otaño-Cruz},

editor = {runoff highly erodible semi-arid islands accelerates the potential of soil erosion Sedimentation is a critical threat to coral reefs worldwide. Major land use alteration at steep and weather patterns and to identify marine ecosystem conservation strategies. Sediment was collected at a distance gradient from shore at Bahia Tamarindo (BTA) dynamics and Puerto Rico. Sediment texture Punta Soldado (PSO) coral reefs at Culebra Island and sieving and techniques and April 2015). Rainfall and RELATE correlation BEST BIO-ENV and time and mostly attributed to higher sediment exposure at reef zones closer to shore due to strong relationships with coastal runoff. Sedimentation rate positively correlated with strong rainfall events (Rho = 0. 301 p < 0.0100) (PERMANOVA},

doi = {https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2017.00249},

year  = {2017},

date = {2017-08-08},

journal = {Frontiers in Marine Science},

volume = {4},

number = {249},

pages = {1-17},

abstract = {Sedimentation is a critical threat to coral reefs worldwide. Major land use alteration at steep, highly erodible semi-arid islands accelerates the potential of soil erosion, runoff, and sedimentation stress to nearshore coral reefs during extreme rainfall events. The goal of this study was to assess spatio-temporal variation of sedimentation dynamics across nearshore coral reefs as a function of land use patterns, weather and oceanographic dynamics, to identify marine ecosystem conservation strategies. Sediment was collected at a distance gradient from shore at Bahia Tamarindo (BTA) and Punta Soldado (PSO) coral reefs at Culebra Island, Puerto Rico. Sediment texture and composition were analyzed by dry sieving and loss-on-ignition techniques, and were contrasted with environmental variables for the research period (February 2014 to April 2015). Rainfall and oceanographic data were analyzed to address their potential role on affecting sediment distribution with BEST BIO-ENV, RELATE correlation, and linear regression analysis. A significant difference in sedimentation rate was observed by time and distance from shore (PERMANOVA, p < 0.0100), mostly attributed to higher sediment exposure at reef zones closer to shore due to strong relationships with coastal runoff. Sedimentation rate positively correlated with strong rainfall events (Rho = 0.301},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Hernandez-Delgado2017,

title = {Unsustainable Land Use, Sediment-Laden Runoff, and Chronic Raw Sewage Offset the Benefits of Coral Reef Ecosystems in a No-Take Marine Protected Area},

author = {Hernando Mattei Jeiger L. Medina-Muñiz Edwin A Hernandez-Delgado},

year  = {2017},

date = {2017-07-07},

journal = {Environmental Management and Sustainable Development},

volume = {6},

number = {2},

pages = {292-333},

abstract = {Unsustainable land uses may result in poor watershed management, increased soil erosion, poorly-planned urban development, increased runoff, and sewage pollution, creating an environmental stress gradient across coastal coral reefs. This study was aimed at: 1) 

Evaluating water quality within and outside the Canal Luis Peña Natural Reserve (CLPNR), Culebra Island, Puerto Rico; 2) Determining if there was any significant environmental stress gradient associated to land-based non-point source pollution; and 3) Characterizing 

shallow-water coral reef communities across the gradient. Strong gradient impacts associated to sediment-laden and nutrient-loaded runoff pulses, in combination with non-point raw sewage pulses, and sediment bedload, impacted coastal coral reefs. Water quality showed significant spatio-temporal fluctuations (p<0.0001), largely responding to heavy rainfall and subsequent runoff pulses. Benthic community structure showed significant spatial variation along the environmental stress gradient (p=0.0002). Macroalgae, dead coral surfaces, algal turf, and low coral species richness, species diversity index (H’c), and evenness (J’c) dominated benthic assemblages across reefs frequently impacted by runoff pulses and sediment bedload. The combination of fecal coliform and enterococci concentrations were correlated with variation in benthic community structure (Rho=0.668; p=0.0020). The 

combined variation in salinity, dissolved oxygen and enterococci concentrations explained 75% of the observed spatial variation in benthic assemblages (R2 =0.7461; p=0.0400). Local human stressors affected coral reefs within no-take CLPNR and risk analyses suggest it may offset its ecological benefits. There is a need to design and implement integrated coastal-watershed management strategies to address multiple land use activities, including erosion-control best management practices, watershed reforestation, and sewage pollution control.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Hernández-Delgado2017b,

title = {Long-Lasting Impacts of Beach Renourishment on nearshore Urban Coral Reefs: a Glimpse of Future Impacts of Shoreline Erosion, Climate Change and Sea Level Rise},

author = {Edwin A. Hernández-Delgado Bernard J. Rosado-Matías},

year  = {2017},

date = {2017-05-05},

journal = {Annals of Marine Biology and Research},

volume = {4},

number = {1},

pages = {1-17},

abstract = {Urban shoreline erosion mitigation through beach renourishment has often been dismissed as environmentally insignificant. Given predicted impacts 

of sea level rise (SLR) and increased shoreline erosion, such activities might become a common practice in the future. But its long-term impacts on adjacent 

coral reefs have remained poorly documented. Benthic community trajectories were addressed during a period of twelve years across a spatial gradient of 

sediment burial impacts by beach renourishment on a high-energy urban coral reef at La Marginal Beach, Arecibo, Puerto Rico. Impacts associated to beach 

renourishment, followed by long-term, slowly-evolving impacts associated to sediment bedload, increased turbidity, increased Arecibo River streamflow, 

urban polluted runoff discharges, high particulate organic carbon (POC) concentration, and coral mortality following massive coral bleaching in 2005 were 

addressed through long-term monitoring. There was an initial catastrophic loss in coral species richness, diversity index and percent living coral cover, and a 

rapid regime shift favoring dominance by macroalgae and other non-reef building taxa. Long-term chronic impacts arrested high impact sites to an early 

successional stage, and drove moderate and low impact sites to a similar stage of very low species diversity, colony abundance and reef growth. Such chronic 

changes in community trajectories represent a glimpse into potential future impacts of shoreline erosion, sediment bedload, increasing turbidity and coastal 

water quality decline associated to SLR. The combination of chronic coral reef decline resulting from beach renourishment, coastal pollution, turbidity, and 

sediment bedload may have critical long-term ecological implications for urban coral reef resilience, functions and benefits.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Soto-Santiago2017b,

title = {Physiological Response to Thermal Stress of the Caribbean Corals Orbicella annularis and Porites astreoides.},

author = {Mercado-Molina Alex E. Francisco J. Soto-Santiago},

url = {https://scialert.net/abstract/?doi=rjes.2017.48.57},

doi = {10.3923/rjes.2017.48.57},

issn = {1819-3412},

year  = {2017},

date = {2017-01-27},

journal = {Research Journal of Environmental Sciences},

volume = {11},

number = {2},

pages = {48-57},

abstract = {Background and Objective: The physiological response of corals to ocean warming is an essential component of their overall resiliency to climate change. It is important to understand how increasing sea surface temperature will affect the mutualistic relationship between corals and their endosymbionts dinoflagellates (Symbiodinium spp.). This study focused on the effects of temperature stress on the photophysiology of two Caribbean corals differing in life history strategies: Orbicella annularis (O. annularis) and Porites astreoides (P. astreoides). Materials and Methods: A total of 12 fragments of each species were collected from the Puerto Morelos, Mexico shoreline. Six fragments of each species were placed under ambient light and a water temperature of 28°C and the other six under ambient light and an elevated temperature of 32°C for 10 days. Maximum pressure over photosytem II (Qm) was estimated daily while chlorophyll content and Symbiodinium densities were measured at the end of the experiment. Results: Qm values were considerably higher in O. annularis at 32°C when compared to O. annularis at 28°C. In contrast, Qm values for P. astreoides did not differ significantly between treatments. Interestingly, Qm values of P. astreoides at 32°C was similar to that of O. annularis at 28°C. Orbicella annularis showed higher Symbiodinium densities and significantly higher concentrations of chlorophyll a at 28°C than at 32°C. In P. astreoides, no differences on chlorophyll content and Symbiodinium densities were found between temperature treatments. Porites astreoides showed higher chlorophyll a content and Symbiodinium densities than O. annularis under high temperature stress. Conclusion: Low Qm values but high chlorophyll concentrations and Symbiodinium densities within P. astreoides after induced temperature stress provides a physiological basis of the opportunistic strategy of this species. However, the significant increase in Qm, lower chlorophyll a concentration and reduced Symbiodinium densities observed in O. annularis at 32°C highlights its vulnerability to ocean warming. If O. annularis, which is considered one of the main builders of Caribbean coral reefs, disappears and is replaced by relatively small and weedy P. astreoides, the structural heterogeneity of Caribbean coral reefs will be reduced.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Mercado-Molina2016,

title = {Branching dynamics of transplanted colonies of the threatened coral Acropora cervicornis: Morphogenesis, complexity, and modeling},

author = {Alberto M. Sabat Claudia Patricia Ruiz-Diaz Alex E. Mercado-Molina},

doi = {https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jembe.2016.05.004},

year  = {2016},

date = {2016-06-01},

journal = {Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology},

volume = {482},

pages = {134-141},

abstract = {Acropora cervicornis is a threatened Caribbean coral that depends on branch fragmentation to proliferate. Understanding the patterns of branch formation is, therefore, essential for the development of management and conservation initiatives. This study describes branch morphogenesis in 100 colony fragments that were transplanted to two reefs in Puerto Rico that differ in light intensity. Four morphometric variables were measured for one year: internode length, branch growth rate, the number of ramifying branches (mother branches; MB), and the number of branches produced (daughter branches; DB). Branching complexity was also evaluated using two indices: the Horton-Strahler bifurcation ratio (Rb) and the Carrillo-Mendoza branching index (CM-BI). A simple discrete model was constructed to estimate the number of harvestable branches over time. No spatial difference was observed when comparing the development of the primary branches, as the mean internode lengths, the mean extension rates, and the mean number of branches produced did not differ statistically between sites. Likewise, internode lengths in secondary branches did not vary significantly between sites. In contrast, the mean branching and growth rates of secondary branches differed statistically between the two study locations. Significant spatial differences were also observed when comparing the total number of MB and the total number of DB but not for the ratio of DB to MB. The CM-BI was more appropriate than the Rb in describing the branching structure of A. cervicornis. The model provided a good fit to the observed branching dynamics; demonstrating its usefulness as a tool for predicting branch productivity of this species. The implications for restoration activities are discussed.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Toledo-Hernández2016,

title = {The role of sclerites in the defense against pathogens of the sea fan Gorgonia ventalina (Octocorallia)},

author = {Luis Ramírez-Camejo Claudia Patricia Ruiz-Diaz Carlos Toledo-Hernández},

year  = {2016},

date = {2016-06-01},

journal = {Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology},

volume = {483},

pages = {20-04},

abstract = {Sessile organisms such as octocorals cannot avoid threats such as predation, parasitism or fungal infections through evasive responses. Instead, they rely on strategies that deter or reduce the impact of these threats. One such strategy is the development of hard structures such as sclerites, which are minute calcium carbonate skeletal elements located on top of the ectoderm and within the mesoglea and gastrodermal tube walls. Sclerites have multiple roles, including structural support of the colony and protection from predators. The role of sclerites as a physical barrier that deters fungal infection, however, is unknown. This study examines the potential role of sea fan sclerites as protection from fungal infection. To accomplish this, four different fungi isolated from healthy sea fans were inoculated into 5 mL tubes filled with culture media and with sclerites from healthy and diseased fans placed on top. To determine whether chemical compounds in the sclerites impact infection, sclerites from healthy and diseased fans were extracted for several days with acetone prior to inoculation. Results showed that the sclerite layer delayed fungal infection from reaching the agar when compared to controls (tubes with agar but no sclerites). There was no difference between tubes with healthy and diseased sclerites, but there were differences among sclerites extracted with acetone. This study suggests that, in addition to the roles in structural support and predator deterrence, sclerites play a role as physical and chemical barriers against to fungal infection.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Ruiz-Diaz2016b,

title = {The role of coral colony health state in the recovery of lesions},

author = {Alex E. Mercado-Molina Carlos Toledo-Hernandez Claudia P. Ruiz-Diaz},

doi = {https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.1531},

year  = {2016},

date = {2016-01-12},

journal = {Peer J},

volume = {PeerJ 4:e1531},

abstract = {Coral disease literature has focused, for the most part, on the etiology of the more than 35 coral afflictions currently described. Much less understood are the factors that underpin the capacity of corals to regenerate lesions, including the role of colony health. This lack of knowledge with respect to the factors that influence tissue regeneration significantly limits our understanding of the impact of diseases at the colony, population, and community level. In this study, we experimentally compared tissue regeneration capacity of diseased versus healthy fragments of Gorgonia ventalina colonies at 5 m and 12 m of depth. We found that the initial health state of colonies (i.e., diseased or healthy) had a significant effect on tissue regeneration (healing). All healthy fragments exhibited full recovery regardless of depth treatment, while diseased fragments did not. Our results suggest that being diseased or healthy has a significant effect on the capacity of a sea fan colony to repair tissue, but that environmental factors associated with changes in depth, such as temperature and light, do not. We conclude that disease doesn’t just compromise vital functions such as growth and reproduction in corals but also compromises their capacity to regenerate tissue and heal lesions.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Ruiz-Diaz2016,

title = {Scraping and extirpating: two strategies to induce recovery of diseased Gorgonia ventalina sea fans},

author = {Alex E. Mercado-Molina Carlos Toledo-Hernandez Claudia P. Ruiz-Diaz},

doi = {10.1111/maec.12283},

year  = {2016},

date = {2016-01-01},

journal = {Marine Ecology},

abstract = {Coral diseases are currently playing a major role in the worldwide decline in coral reef integrity. One of the coral species most afflicted by disease in the Caribbean, and which has been the focus of much research, is the sea fan Gorgonia ventalina. There is, however, very little information regarding the capacity of sea fans to recover after being infected. The aim of this study was to compare the rehabilitation capacity of G. ventalina after diseased-induced lesions were eliminated either by scraping or extirpating the affected area. Scraping consisted of removing any organisms overgrowing the axial skeleton from the diseased area as well as the purple tissue bordering these overgrowths using metal bristle brushes. Extirpation consisted of cutting the diseased area, including the surrounding purpled tissue, using scissors. The number of scraped colonies that fully or partially rehabilitated after being manipulated and the rates at which the sea fans whose lesions were scrapped grew back healthy tissue were compared among: (i) colonies that inhabited two sites with contrasting environmental conditions; (ii) colonies of different sizes and (iii) colonies with different ratios of area of legions to total colony area (LA/CA). Both strategies proved to be very successful in eliminating lesions from sea fans. In the case of scraping, over 51% of the colonies recovered between 80% and 100% of the lost tissue within 16 months. The number of colonies that recovered from scraping was similar among sites and among colony sizes, but differed significantly depending on the relative amount of lesion to colony area (LA/CA). When lesions were extirpated, lesions did not reappear in any of the colonies. We conclude that lesion scraping is useful for eliminating relatively small lesions (i.e. LA/CA < 10%), as these are likely to recover in a shorter period of time, whereas for relatively large lesions (LA/CA ≥ 10%) it is more appropriate to extirpate the lesion.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Hernández-Delgado2015,

title = {The emerging threats of climate change on tropical coastal ecosystem services, public health, local economies and livelihood sustainability of small islands: Cumulative impacts and synergies},

author = {Edwin A. Hernández-Delgado},

doi = {doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.09.018},

year  = {2015},

date = {2015-12-31},

journal = {Marine Pollution Bulletin},

volume = {101},

number = {1},

pages = {5-28},

abstract = {Climate change has significantly impacted tropical ecosystems critical for sustaining local economies and community livelihoods at global scales. Coastal ecosystems have largely declined, threatening the principal source of protein, building materials, tourism-based revenue, and the first line of defense against storm swells and sea level rise (SLR) for small tropical islands. Climate change has also impacted public health (i.e., altered distribution and increased prevalence of allergies, water-borne, and vector-borne diseases). Rapid human population growth has exacerbated pressure over coupled social–ecological systems, with concomitant non-sustainable impacts on natural resources, water availability, food security and sovereignty, public health, and quality of life, which should increase vulnerability and erode adaptation and mitigation capacity. This paper examines cumulative and synergistic impacts of climate change in the challenging context of highly vulnerable small tropical islands. Multiple adaptive strategies of coupled social–ecological ecosystems are discussed. Multi-level, multi-sectorial responses are necessary for adaptation to be successful.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Mercado-Molina2015b,

title = {Demography of the threatened coral Acropora cervicornis: implications for its management and conservation},

author = {Marıa E. Perez Claudia P. Ruiz-Diaz Alex E. Mercado-Molina},

doi = {DOI 10.1007/s00338-015-1341-8},

year  = {2015},

date = {2015-12-02},

journal = {Coral Reefs},

volume = {34},

number = {4},

pages = {1113-1124},

abstract = {Populations of Acropora cervicornis have collapsed throughout the Caribbean. This situation has prompted the initiation of many restoration efforts; yet, there are insufficient demographic data and analyses to effectively guide these initiatives. In this study, we assessed the spatiotemporal variability of A. cervicornis vital rates. We also developed a population matrix model to (1) evaluate the risk of population extinction, (2) estimate population growth rates considering different rates of colony fragmentation and fragment survival, (3) determine the demographic transition(s) that contribute the most to spatiotemporal differences in growth rates , and (4) analyze the effectiveness of outplanting coral fragments of different sizes.Themodel was parameterized by following the fate of 300 colonies from 2011 to 2013 at two localities in Puerto Rico. Demographic transitions varied spatiotemporally, with a significant interaction between location and time period on colony fate. Spatiotemporal variations in growth rates were also observed. During the first year, populations exhibited growth rates below equilibrium (0.918 and 0.948), followed by a dramatic decline at both sites (0.535 and 0.709) during the second year. The lower growth rates were caused by a decrease in the probability of stasis of large-sized colonies coupled with the lack of sexual recruits and a meager contribution of asexual recruitment. Spatial variations in growth rates were largely due to differences in the probability of medium-sized colonies advancing to the largest size class. The viability analysis forecasts that the populations will reach quasi-extinction levels of 25% of the initial population size in less than 16 yrs. Numerical simulations indicate that outplanting fragments larger than 250 cm in total linear length (TLL) would result in a higher asymptotic population size than outplanting smaller fragments. We argue, however, that transplanting colonies less than 100 cm TLL will be a better management strategy because they can be produced faster and in higher numbers at coral nurseries.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Torres-Pérez2015,

title = {Relative Pigment Composition and Remote Sensing Reflectance of Caribbean ShallowWater Corals},

author = {Roy A. Armstrong Liane S. Guild Juan L. Torres-Pérez},

doi = {DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0143709},

year  = {2015},

date = {2015-11-30},

journal = {PlosONE},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Mercado-Molina2015,

title = {Demographics and dynamics of two restored populations of the threatened reef-building coral Acropora cervicornis},

author = {Claudia P. Ruiz-Diaz Alex E. Mercado-Molina and Alberto M. Sabat},

url = {https://www.sampr.org/sam/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Mercado-Molina-et-al.-2015.pdf},

year  = {2015},

date = {2015-01-09},

journal = {Journal for Nature Conservation},

volume = {24},

pages = {17-23},

abstract = {Acropora cervicornis is one of the principal reef-building organisms in the Caribbean; it is also considered one of the most threatened coral species. Due to its ecological importance and critical status it is the focus of many restoration and management initiatives. However, studies that quantitatively measure the efficacy or feasibility of these efforts are mostly lacking. In this study, nursery-reared fragments ofA. cervicornis were transplanted to two reefs in Puerto Rico as part of a reef rehabilitation program, andtheir survival, growth, and branch production were measured for a year. We also evaluated the effect ofthis restoration on the dynamics and viability of the fragment populations by means of a simple model.Survival of outplanted fragments surpassed 60%. Colony growth rate varied between 0.20 ± 0.18 and0.29 ± 0.21 cm d−1(mean ± SD) whereas branch production ranged between 7.02 ± 5.72 and 11.86 ± 7.06(mean ± SD) branches per fragment per year. Survival did not vary considerably with respect to fragmentsize. In contrast, large fragments (≥25 cm) grew faster and tended to produce more branches than smallerones. Model simulations indicate that (1) in the absence of recruitment, and without any subsequenthuman intervention, restored populations will decrease below a quasi-extinction level of 25% of theinitial population size after just 3 years and (2) transplanting at least 20 colony fragments per year (12%of initial population) is sufficient to keep the restored populations above the 25% threshold. We conclude that A. cervicornis may be a feasible species for restoration projects given sustained human intervention and that transplanting fragments of at least 25 cm to reefs is an effective restoration protocol that requires minimum effort to maintain a viable restored population of this key reef-building coral.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Mercado-Molina2014,

title = {Revisiting the population status of the sea urchin Diadema antillarum in northern Puerto Rico},

author = {Ruber Rodri’guez-Barreras Alfredo Montanez-Acuna Alex E. Mercado-Molina and Alberto M. Sabat},

url = {https://www.sampr.org/sam/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Mercado-Molina-et-al.-2014_Diadema.pdf},

year  = {2014},

date = {2014-11-14},

journal = {Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom},

number = {doi:10.1017/S002531541400188X},

pages = {1-8},

abstract = {The mass mortality suffered by the sea urchin Diadema antillarum between 1983–1984 is considered one of the major causes of coral reef degradation in the Caribbean. Its near disappearance resulted in a disproportionate growth of macroalgae that has led to a ‘phase shift’ from coral-to-algal dominated reefs. The close relationship between this echinoid and the functioning of coral reef ecosystems makes it imperative to better understand the potential for recovery of its populations. From 2009 to 

2011, we assessed the density and size structure of D. antillarum in various reefs where previous population data were available. Results indicate a modest increase in density in all localities with respect to the last time they were surveyed in 2003/2004. Nevertheless, density values are still lower than values reported for the island prior to the die-off. Overall density did not surpass 1.49 ind. per m2, and did not change considerably during the studied period. Lack of population growth coincided with a lack of juveniles; suggesting that population growth at the studied sites may be limited by the number of individuals recruiting into the juvenile stage.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Hernández-Delgado2015b,

title = {Community-Based Coral Reef Rehabilitation in a Changing Climate: Lessons Learned from Hurricanes, Extreme Rainfall, and Changing Land Use Impacts},

author = {Pedro J. Alejandro-Camis Alex E. Mercado-Molina Edwin A. Hernández-Delgado},

url = {https://www.sampr.org/sam/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Hernandez-Delgado-et-al.-20141.pdf},

year  = {2014},

date = {2014-10-11},

journal = {Open Journal of Ecology},

volume = {4},

pages = {918-944},

abstract = {Coral reefs have largely declined across multiple spatial scales due to a combination of local-scale 

anthropogenic impacts, and due to regional-global climate change. This has resulted in a significant 

loss of entire coral functional groups, including western Atlantic Staghorn coral (Acropora 

cervicornis) biotopes, and in a net decline of coral reef ecosystem resilience, ecological functions, 

services and benefits. Low-tech coral farming has become one of the most important tools to help 

restore depleted coral reefs across the Wider Caribbean Region. We tested a community-based, 

low-tech coral farming approach in Culebra Island, Puerto Rico, aimed at adapting to climate 

change-related impacts through a two-year project to propagate A. cervicornis under two contrasting 

fishing management conditions, in coastal areas experimenting significant land use 

changes. Extreme rainfall events and recurrent tropical storms and hurricanes had major site- and 

method-specific impacts on project outcome, particularly in areas adjacent to deforested lands 

and subjected to recurrent impacts from land-based source pollution (LBSP) and runoff. Overall, 

coral survival rate in “A frame” units improved from 73% during 2011-2012 to 81% during 

2012-2013. Coral survival rate improved to 97% in horizontal line nurseries (HLN) incorporated during 2012-2013. Percent tissue cover ranged from 86% to 91% in “A frames”, but reached 98% 

in HLN. Mean coral skeletal extension was 27 cm/y in “A frames” and 40 cm/y in HLN. These 

growth rates were up to 545% to 857% faster than previous reports from coral farms from other 

parts of the Caribbean, and up to 438% faster than wild colonies. Branch production and branchiness 

index (no. harvestable branches > 6 cm) increased by several orders of magnitude in comparison 

to the original colonies at the beginning of the project. Coral mortality was associated to 

hurricane physical impacts and sediment-laden runoff impacts associated to extreme rainfall and 

deforestation of adjacent lands. This raises a challenging question regarding the impact of chronic 

high sea surface temperature (SST), in combination with recurrent high nutrient pulses, in fostering 

increased coral growth at the expense of coral physiological conditions which may compromise 

corals resistance to disturbance. Achieving successful local management of reefs and adjacent 

lands is vital to maintain the sustained net production in coral farms and of reef structure, 

and the provision of the important ecosystem services that they provide. These measures are vital 

for buying time for reefs while global action on climate change is implemented. Adaptive community- 

based strategies are critical to strengthen institutional management efforts. But government 

agencies need to transparently build local trust, empower local stakeholders, and foster 

co-management to be fully successful. Failing to achieve that could make community-based coral 

reef rehabilitation more challenging, and could potentially drive rapidly declining, transient coral 

reefs into the slippery slope to slime.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Hernández-Delgado2014,

title = {Large-scale coral recruitment patterns on Mona Island, Puerto Rico: evidence of a transitional community trajectory after massive coral bleaching and mortality},

author = {Carmen M. González-Ramos Edwin A. Hernández-Delgado and Pedro J. Alejandro-Camis},

url = {https://www.sampr.org/sam/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Hernandez-Delgado-Gonzalez-Ramos-and-Alejandro-Camis-2014.pdf},

year  = {2014},

date = {2014-09-30},

journal = {Revista Biologia Tropical},

volume = {Vol. 62},

number = {Supl.3},

pages = {49-64},

abstract = {Coral reefs have largely declined across the northeastern Caribbean following the 2005 massive 

bleaching event. Climate change-related sea surface warming and coral disease outbreaks of a white plague-like syndrome and of yellow band disease (YBD) have caused significant coral decline affecting massive reef building species (i.e., Orbicella annularis species complex) which show no apparent signs of recovery through larval sexual recruitment. We addressed coral recruit densities across three spur and groove reef locations along the western shelf of remote Mona Island, Puerto Rico: Punta Capitán (PCA), Pasa de Las Carmelitas (PLC), and Las Carmelitas-South (LCS). Data were collected during November 2012 along 93 haphazard transects across three depth zones (<5m, 5-10m, 10-15m). A total of 32 coral species (9 octocorals, 1 hydrocoral, 22 scleractinians) were documented among the recruit community. Communities had low densities and dominance by short-lived brooder species seven years after the 2005 event. Mean coral recruit density ranged from 1.2 to 10.5/m2 at PCA, 

6.3 to 7.2/m2 at LCS, 4.5 to 9.5/m2 at PLC. Differences in coral recruit community structure can be attributed to slight variation in percent macroalgal cover and composition as study sites had nearly similar benthic spatial heterogeneity. Dominance by ephemeral coral species was widespread. Recovery of largely declining massive reef-building species such as the O. annularis species complex was limited or non-existent. The lack of recovery could be the combined result of several mechanisms involving climate change, YBD disease, macroalgae, fishing, urchins and Mona Island’s reefs limited connectivity to other reef systems. There is also for rehabilitation of fish trophic structure, with emphasis in recovering herbivore guilds and depleted populations of D. antillarum. Failing to recognize the importance of ecosystem-based management and resilience rehabilitation may deem remote coral reefs recovery unlikely.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Hernández-Delgado2014b,

title = {Bomb-cratered coral reefs in Puerto Rico, the untold story about a novel habitat: from reef destruction to community-based ecological rehabilitation},

author = {Abimarie Otaño-Cruz Alfredo Montañez-Acuña Edwin A. Hernández-Delgado and Samuel E. Suleimán-Ramos},

url = {https://www.sampr.org/sam/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Hernandez-Delgado-et-al.-Rev.-Biol.-Trop..pdf},

year  = {2014},

date = {2014-09-29},

journal = {Revista Biologia Tropical},

volume = {Vol. 62},

number = {Suppl. 3},

pages = {183-200},

abstract = {Ecological impacts of military bombing activities in Puerto Rico have often been described as 

minimal, with recurrent allegations of confounding effects by hurricanes, coral diseases and local anthropogenic stressors. Reef craters, though isolated, are associated with major colony fragmentation and framework pulverization, with a net permanent loss of reef bio-construction. In contrast, adjacent non-bombarded reef sections have significantly higher benthic spatial relief and biodiversity. We compared benthic communities on 35-50 year-old bomb-cratered coral reefs at Culebra and Vieques Islands, with adjacent non-impacted sites; 2) coral recruit density and fish community structure within and outside craters; and 3) early effects of a rehabilitation 

effort using low-tech Staghorn coral Acropora cervicornis farming. Reef craters ranged in size from 

approximately 50 to 400 m2 and were largely dominated by heavily fragmented, flattened benthos, with coral cover usually below 2% and dominance by non-reef building taxa (i.e., filamentous algal turfs, macroalgae). Benthic spatial heterogeneity was lower within craters which also resulted in a lowered functional value as fish nursery ground. Fish species richness, abundance and biomass, and coral recruit density were lower within craters. Low-tech, community-based approaches to culture, harvest and transplant A. cervicornis into formerly bombarded grounds have proved successful in increasing percent coral cover, benthic spatial heterogeneity, and helping rehabilitate nursery ground functions},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Díaz-Ortega2014,

title = {Unsustainable Land-Based Source Pollution in a Climate of Change: A Roadblock to the Conservation and Recovery of Elkhorn Coral Acropora palmata (Lamarck 1816)},

author = {Geraldine Díaz-Ortega and Edwin A. Hernández-Delgado},

url = {https://www.sampr.org/sam/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Diaz-Ortega-and-Hernandez-Delgado-2014.pdf},

year  = {2014},

date = {2014-07-18},

journal = {Natural Resources},

volume = {5},

pages = {561-581},

abstract = {Chronic eutrophication and turbidity are critical detrimental factors impacting coral reef ecosystems, 

adversely affecting their ecological functions, services, benefits, and resilience across multiple 

spatial scales and over prolonged periods of time. Inadequate land use practices and lack of 

appropriate sewage treatment can adversely contribute to increase land-based source pollution 

(LBSP) impacts in coastal waters and to magnify impacts by sea surface warming trends associated 

to climate change. Fringing coral reefs off Vega Baja, Puerto Rico, support extensive remnant 

patches of Elkhorn coral Acropora palmata (Lamarck 1816), which was listed in 2006 as a threatened 

species under the US Endangered Species Act. Chronic impacts by LBSP have significantly affected 

local downstream fringing reefs. We characterized the spatial extent of a water quality 

stress gradient across 12 reefs along the Vega Baja coast through monthly measurements of multiple 

physico-chemical parameters. Most parameters, particularly PO4, + NH4 , chlorophyll-a, and 

the concentration of optical brighteners (OABs), showed a statistically significant increase 

(PERMANOVA, p < 0.05) in waters close to the main pollution sources, but also in waters adjacent 

to Cibuco River effluents. Dissolved oxygen also declined and turbidity increased on polluted sites. 

PO4, + NH4 , and chlorophyll-a, exceeded recommended concentrations for coral reef ecosystems by factors of 7 - 50 times, 600 - 1240 times, and 17 - 83 times, respectively, depending on the source 

of the effluents and the distance from sewage pollution sources. Also, water turbidity exceeded 4 - 

10 times the recommended value for pristine coral reefs. Coral reefs showed significant decline in 

close proximity to the polluted zone, showing a significantly different benthic community structure 

(PERMANOVA, p < 0.0001) dominated by non-reef building taxa (i.e., macroalgae, algal turf) 

and bare substrate. Percent coral cover and abundance of A. palmata, showed a significant increase 

with distance. Coral species richness, species diversity index, and the variance in taxonomic 

distinctness were very low on reef patches adjacent to the polluted zone, increased at a moderate 

distance with increasing coral cover and co-existence of multiple species, and declined far 

from the pollution source due to dominance exerted by A. palmata. This study suggests that 

chronic LBSP resulted in a major decline of one of the largest and most dense remnant stands of A. 

palmata across the northeastern Caribbean and that nutrient and chlorophyll-a concentrations 

were unsustainable for coral reefs. This situation requires immediate solution to prevent further 

damage to these unprecedented resources. It further suggests that chronic LBSP may synergistically 

magnify sea-surface warming impacts driving corals to an increased state of risk in face of 

forecasted climate change impacts. Actions to mitigate and adapt to climate change impacts on 

coral reefs must require a priori controls of LBSP to be effective.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Hernández-Delgado2014bb,

title = {Ecosystem-Based and Community-Based Model Integration to Designate Coral Reef No-Take Marine Protected Areas: A Case Study from Puerto Rico},

author = {and Alberto M. Sabat Manoj Shivlani Edwin A. Hernández-Delgado},

url = {https://www.sampr.org/sam/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Hernandez-Delgado_Sabat-2014.pdf},

year  = {2014},

date = {2014-07-12},

journal = {Natural Resources},

volume = {5},

pages = {538-560},

abstract = {Ecosystem-based management and community-based participation in governance of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) have been identified as key elements to improve management success, local 

stakeholder support, and compliance with regulations. However, both are often rarely achieved, 

resulting in poor MPA governance, support and success. A quantitative assessment of the spatiotemporal change (1997-2012) of coral reef fish communities within Arrecifes La Cordillera Natural Reserve in northeastern Puerto Rico was carried out. We also identified community expectations of and support for the designation of a network of small no-take MPAs within the reserve’s boundaries. A holistic approach employing biophysical and socioeconomic methods was used as part of a participatory model to identify priorities for the designation of candidate no-take MPAs. Populations of the most important fishery-targeted species showed a significant temporal decline, particularly in areas subjected to intense recreational activities and spearfishing. Most groupers (Serranidae), snappers (Lutjanidae), barracudas (Sphyraenidae), and some parrotfishes (Scaridae) were nearly absent at most sites. Most individuals belonged to smaller size categories. Herbivores represented the majority of the total fish biomass, suggesting strong fishing impacts on apex predators. Fish declines also occurred after two massive coral bleaching events in 1998 and 2005 that were followed by mass coral mortalities, suggesting combined negative impacts of fishing and climate change. A no-take MPA designation was supported by 80% of the artisanal fishermen, 73% of the concessionaires (i.e., SCUBA diving, charter boats), and 52% of registered vessel operators. 

Stakeholders agreed that coral reef conditions in the reserve had declined over time, as well as 

water quality which affected reef health and fisheries. Stakeholders did not recognize climate 

change and sea surface warming as threats to coral reefs and fisheries. Nonetheless, stakeholder 

perceptions of candidate no-take MPA sites remarkably matched those identified through fish 

counts. This study also highlighted the pervasive views held by many stake-holders concerning 

MPA management and enforcement, and recommended that any no-take MPA designation process 

considers improving stakeholder participation, understanding of management objectives, actions, 

and accomplishments, and building stakeholders trust. The integration of ecosystem-based and 

community-based participatory models may be critical to foster improved support of no-take 

MPAs and foster a long-term community-based integration to develop and implement mitigation 

strategies for climate change impacts in novel future scenarios.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Mercado-Molina2014b,

title = {Survival, growth, and branch production of unattached fragments of the threatened hermatypic coral Acropora cervicornis},

author = {Claudia Patricia Ruiz-Diaz Alex E. Mercado-Molina and Alberto M. Sabat},

url = {https://www.sampr.org/sam/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Mercado-Molina-et-al-2014.pdf},

year  = {2014},

date = {2014-03-04},

journal = {Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology},

volume = {457},

pages = {215-219},

abstract = {Fragmentation has been regarded as the most important reproductive strategy in the threatened reef building coral Acropora cervicornis. Before the Caribbean-wide collapse experienced by A. cervicornis, asexual reproduction may have served as an effective source of newcolonies to sustain and/or enhance local population growth. However, baseline information on the demographic success of fragments in nature is limited, hampering our ability to estimate the real contribution of asexual fragmentation to current population growth. In this study, natural occurring fragments of A. cervicornis were monitored for 18 months at two sites in Puerto Rico in order to quantify 

their survival, growth, and branching dynamics. Fragment survivorship did not exceed 26%, growth rates were relatively low with mean values ranging between 0.0242 ± 0.0168 (SE) and 0.0906 ± 0.0301 (SE) cm d−1, and fragments barely produced new branches. No significant differences were found when comparing these demographic traits for different size categories. The relative low rates of survival, growth and branch production of natural fragments suggest that asexual fragmentation may not currently be a significant source of recruits for populations of this threatened coral.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Hernández-Delgado2014bc,

title = {E.S.A. CORAL SPECIES LISTING: A ROADBLOCK TO COMMUNITY-BASED ENGAGEMENT IN CORAL REEF CONSERVATION AND REHABILITATION ACROSS THE U.S. CARIBBEAN?},

author = {Edwin A. Hernández-Delgado and Samuel E. Suleimán-Ramos},

url = {https://www.sampr.org/sam/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Hernandez-Suleiman-2014-ESA-coral-listing-roadblock.pdf},

year  = {2014},

date = {2014-02-27},

volume = {29},

number = {1},

pages = {11-15},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}